The OECD investigators have drawn several overall conclusions:

1. The challenging situation faced by workers without a secondary education diploma is evident in the employment rates of 25 to 34-year-olds, which varies by country. The OECD average employment rate for this age group is 61%, while 79% of graduates are employed. The OECD particularly focuses on the situation in France, as detailed in the following paragraph. Additionally, educational attainment and labor market outcomes have improved for the lowest-performing groups. Since 2016, the percentage of 18 to 24-year-olds who are not engaged in employment, education, or training has decreased from 16% to 14% on average across the OECD.

2. Job opportunities have improved recently. The employment rate for 25 to 34-year-olds without an upper secondary qualification has increased from 59% to 61%. For those with an upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary qualification, the rate has risen from 76% to 79%. These positive trends are largely attributed to 18 to 24-year-olds remaining in education for a longer duration, coupled with a strong labor market. However, the skills that young adults acquire often do not align with the needs of the labor market. To sustain these positive employment trends during economic  downturns, it is crucial to ensure that improvements in educational attainment are accompanied by better learning outcomes. This requires developing strong foundational skills that promote lifelong learning, as well as relevant employability skills that support individuals in their careers.

3. The percentage of 18-24-year-olds who are neither employed, in education, nor training (NEET) is declining in most OECD countries. From 2016 to 2023, the average NEET rate across the OECD decreased from 15.8% to 13.8%. Similarly, the proportion of 25-34-year-olds without an upper secondary qualification has dropped from 17% to 14%. However, these changes do not reflect improved learning outcomes. The percentage of low-performing 15-year-olds in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has either remained the same or increased in most countries since 2012.

4. The family context is essential, with a still higher percentage of non-graduates among young people aged 18-24 from disadvantaged backgrounds of foreign origin. Conversely, Italy has consistently low shares of tertiary-educated adults, irrespective of their country of birth: 23% for native-born and 14% for foreign-born (Table A1.3). Similarly, in countries with a large share of adults with below upper secondary attainment, this tends to be the case for both native- and foreign-born populations.

One finding across OECD countries is that the share of tertiary-educated adults among native-born and foreign-born adults often aligns with a country's overall educational attainment distribution. For instance, in Canada, the share of tertiary-educated adults is notably high among native-